Education in the World of Politics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Education in the World of Politics - Essay Example It can be recalled that the sovereign theory refers to the submission of individuals or a group to a one common sovereign who can protect them against violent death. This submission can also be looked at as a master-slave relationship where those who do not abide form the law is subjected to punishment. In this case, education is important since this is the means or the main tool for the followers and even for the leaders to know their duties and or responsibilities in the group or in the society where they belong. Hobbes also said that since humans are grounded to passions, it is important that humans know how to correctly reason out and that has something to do with logic. Also, with the basic idea that man lives for his own selfishness, there is always a tendency to act through emotion and therefore, with proper education, logic can be attained. On the other hand, there is also another idea from Plato about education. This has something to do with the "guardians" of the "just city." According to him, the guardians, in order for them not to use their power for their own benefits to rule over the people they are protecting, they should be properly educated to know not just their limitations but also their privileges.

Automobile Workers vs Johnson Controls Inc Case Study

Automobile Workers vs Johnson Controls Inc - Case Study Example Eight employees of a battery manufacturing company who were pregnant exhibited increased lead quantities in their blood – more than what OSHA approves to be a considerable amount (Rehnquist, Kennedy, & Scalia, 1991). The company later barred all women from working in lead related departments except those who could not have children, though after passing clinical tests to ascertain their conditions. This prompted a group of employees to file a case in the District Court. They argued that the policy discriminated against the female gender and violated Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Rehnquist et al., 1991). The District Court and the Court of Appeal granted the respondents a summary judgment on grounds that their fetal protection policy is reasonably necessary to further the industrial safety concern. The petitioners claimed that excluding fertile women from lead-exposed jobs, the respondent's policy creates a facial grouping based on gender besides marginalizing them under 703(a) of Title VII (Rehnquist et al., 1991). They claimed the policy is not neutral because it does not apply to males despite evidence that lead exposure poses great harm to their reproductive system. They cited that provided that the fertile women performed their duties as expected, the company has no right to segregate them. However, the respondents argue that they are concerned about the other coming generation’s status regardless of the law exclusively being for the parents (Rehnquist et al., 1991). Ethical Issues Is the company in line with professional work ethics and fair gender opportunities law by passing the policy discriminating fertile and infertile women from working in the lead related departments? No, the company does not satisfy its expected moral and ethical standards as required in the society by passing a policy that stigmatizes the female gender. Additionally, it also violates Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that protects all genders fro m discrimination. By so doing, the company would be creating a facial categorization that utilizes gender to segregate women (Rehnquist et al., 1991). The policy is not neutral and fair to both genders and how lead affects them either. According to the company, lead affects only the female gender despite concrete evidence that it poses adverse effects on the male reproductive organs. The law also cites that unless the pregnant employees differ from others in their expertise, they must all get both equal treatment and opportunities (Rehnquist et al., 1991). In addition, legislative history and case law bar an employer from discriminating against pregnant women or their pregnancy capacity unless their condition prevents them from performing the expected duties. The employees’ fetuses are neither customers nor employees whose safety is a concern of the company’s management (Rehnquist et al., 1991). In this context, the respondents should get rid of their policy as the fem ale fertile employees participate in manufacturing lead batteries similar to other peers. Alternatives Would getting rid of the policy of the company not tarnish the company’s image and still keep the fertile female employees’ comfortable working for the company? Yes, this move by the company would motivate fertile females in the company besides prompting them to work more comfortably and harder than before. This would also be a means of enhancing good publicity of the company in the society because the policy adheres to the female discriminatory law, which contradicts with business ethics (Rehnquist et al., 1991). However, by taking this move, the company would be putting the fetus, the fertile mothers and their future families at great risks. This is because lead exposure to fertile women

S Corporation vs. Corporation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

S Corporation vs. Corporation - Essay Example Incorporating as either of these provides shareholders with a number of tax and non tax advantages, which are gained by any company that is incorporated in either of these categories. Focusing on the tax issue, there is the fact that corporations are able in certain situations to help one in reducing their tax obligations. In states where the corporate tax is lower than individual income tax, one can incorporate thereby paying the lower corporate tax. Being a corporation allows the corporation to write down losses that may result from start ups, thereby reducing the tax burden that they have to meet. Corporations are also able to avoid tax by retaining income earned. This will limit the tax burden of the shareholders as well as the corporation. Though there are regulations in place that set a limit to the amount that can be retained without accruing taxation. The flipside that may exist as far as taxation of corporations goes is that of the double taxation effect. This is where the c orporation gets to pay tax on its profit. The profit after tax that is then paid to shareholders as dividends is also taxed as income tax. This may be remedied if the corporation is recognized as an S corporation. The advantage of S corporations comes from the single taxation of the corporation’s income. ... This will therefore increase the overall tax obligation of the shareholders (Lederman, 2002). There are various justifications that can be provided to the management for the election of scuba view Inc. to be a corporation. There is reduced tax obligation on the shareholders due to the reduced payment of tax on income. This is because corporations enjoy various deductions that other entities may not. One case is any company related expense may be expensed thereby reducing the income before tax. Also the income tax rate for individuals currently rests at between 10% and 39.6%. This is comparable to the current corporate tax rate that is between 15% and 35% (Landes, 2013). There is evidence suggesting that the effective rate that has been paid by corporations in terms of corporate tax has been dropping and it is quoted as being 31.9% by the financial times (Demos, 2012). The move towards making Lost and found Corp. an S corporation has been informed by the need to limit shareholders tax burden. In making this corporation into a designation S one, means that the shareholders still enjoy the benefits of a corporation without the need for double taxation. Shareholders who have lower tax rates can utilize this new designation to cut the tax that they pay the federal government. This is because in being an S corporation the shareholders only get to pay income tax on the income that the corporation pays to the shareholders. There is also the possibility to reduce the tax liability by retaining most of the income of the corporation. This retained income will only get taxed when it reaches a certain limit. For an entity to be recognized as an S corporation there are certain criteria that it must meet. To begin with the corporation is only limited to seventy five

Scriptures of Rig Veda in Hinduism Essay Example for Free

Scriptures of Rig Veda in Hinduism Essay The Shinto theory of creation of universe holds a remarkable similarity with the theories propagated in scriptures of Rig Veda in Hinduism. Though apparently both the religions have flourished in completely isolation, the theories of creation propounded by Shinto religion bears a significant similarity to Hinduism particularly in description of evolution of earth and the succession of human beings from Gods. The belief of God as being the originator of entire creation is central to both. While Shinto describes the world before creation as a mixture of dark and bright parts of cloud, Rig-veda asserts that in the beginning only darkness prevailed, completely devoid of any sign of existence in the form of light, air, or ether. . Only God was present to initiate the evolution. According to Shinto, after the separation of heaven from earth, depending upon the density of waste material and the proportion of brightness and weight, a reed was born between earth and heaven. It is cited that the first God Kuni-toko-tachi no Mikoto was born from this reed. Interestingly, Rig Ved also cites a passage tellling that Lord Brahma, who is believed to be the father (creator) of universe in hinduism, was born out of a flower. However, unlike Lord Kuni-toko-tachi no Mikoto , Lord Brahma was born from a flower that grew from the stomach of Lord Vishnu. Both Lord Kuni-toko-tachi no Mikoto and Lord Brahma are one of the first Gods in Shinto and Hindu religion respectively and bear a plant as the cause of their birth. Both the theories give a sequential detail of formationm of earth and its components, beginning form prevailing darkness to the formation of different components of light. Shinto, however, gives a comparatively unique and consistent theory of creation whereas the details provided by Rig Veda are multi-faceted and at many occasions, inconsistent. While some portions of Rig-Veda describe Brahma as Lord Shiva as the first God, creator of the system, some other passages have described Lord Vishnu as the originator and driving force behind the universe. It is mentioned that all the Gods had been created form the pores of the body of Lord Vishnu. As far as the physical developments of planetary systems and earth are concerned, many a times, both the theories prescribe a sequence of events evidently similar. The evolution of earth from darkness, formation of water, and emergence of life in water has been prescribed in both the theories, though these details are frequently confused by the inclusion of different roles played by different Gods. Shinto proclaims that Izanagi, the second god created by the First God carved an island by immersing his spear in an ocean and thendrippng the water on it, which turned itself into a mass of land, which later turned out to become the habitat of Izanagi, and his wife, Izanami. They later made more islands and Japan was thus born. Shinto, also gives a detailed explanation of the formation and evolution of earth and other solar components, again infused by the dramatic and, at several occasions, confusing roles played by different Gods.

Acquisition of Nursing Critical Thinking Skills Strategies

Acquisition of Nursing Critical Thinking Skills Strategies Aims Aims are general statements of the expected educational intentions of the subject taught (Butt, 2006). The aims of the lesson are: 1. To provide nursing students with opportunities to acquire critical thinking abilities necessary for distinguishing genuine patients 2. To enable students to apply and implement the learnt critical thinking strategies learnt in actual practice with human patients. 3. To provide opportunities for students to develop critical thinking skills and practice clinical decision-making with appropriate faculty guidance. 4. To equip the students with the necessary assessment skills required in identifying patient problems, analysing these problems in terms of their implications for the underlying disease processes and psychosocial needs, and taking actions to optimize the recovery situation. Learning Objectives Learning objectives are specific and measurable targets to be attained by students taught (Kerry, 2002). By the end of the lesson, the student shall be able to: 1. Recall knowledge and facts learnt in class. 2. Apply the comprehension thinking to articulate and establish the relationship among data. 3. Apply the concept learning new hypothetical situation to arrive at correct answer. 4. Apply the analysis in breaking problems into components and examine the components to establish trends and evidence generalization. 5. Present items or thoughts together in new ways-synthesis. 6. Evaluate arguments for validity or relative worth of a view point or process based on established criteria. Teaching Philosophy The teaching philosophy for lessons is derived from social and situational theories that put focus on relationships and interaction between individuals as basis for learning process (International Conference on Innovation and Entrepreneurship, Worasinchai Ribiere, 2014). The theories hold that students must engage in meaningful discussions and conversation with one another in order to learn from them. I hold the view that students learn best from their peers. Consequently, peer learning shall be done in every teaching session. Teaching Strategies Teaching strategies are methods and processes the teacher uses to engage student and facilitate the learning process (Programme for International Student Assessment., Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2010). These strategies are outlined below. 1. Peer learning. Peer learning is a learning strategy that entails students learning from themselves in pairs or groups (Frankland, 2007). For peer learning section, the teach er shall group students and provide task for each group to perform. Peers shall together to set up a support network for group learning and support. 2. Observation and feedback. The teacher provides clear, honest, detailed and objective feedback on the learner’s performance so they may identify areas in need of improvement or levels of achievement. 3. Demonstration Demonstration is a type of learning that involves exhibition and explanation of the concept, process, procedure, idea or experiment (Sankaranarayanan Sindhu, 2012). A student will be allocated to perform as a patient with a scenario, and the students will talk to him while he answers them. 4. Reflection. Reflection involves careful consideration of concepts, ideas, knowledge, beliefs, processes and information on the basis of its premises and conclusions that supports it (Suqerman, 2000). Time to make sense of things will be given after the performance of the human stimulator to make sense of everything. 5. Lecture A lecture is a method of teaching that involves the presentation of the subject through talking (Jarvis, 1995). The teacher will explain various concepts in class. Lecture time shall be used by the teacher to teach students about the topic for the session. 6. PowerPoint Presentation The teacher will make a short presentation to introduce the topic and key issues. Procedure The teacher makes a 15 minute PowerPoint presentation followed by a 15 minutes pre-test (multiple answer questions) given to students. Session begins, each having 120 minutes 1. The teacher gives a 15min lecture to students. 2. 15 minutes pre-test given to students (7 multiple answer questions). 3. Teacher asks one student to pretend as patient and the rest of students as the student question. The demonstration and practice on human stimulator as patient last for 20 min. 4. Students can ask reflection questions on the demonstration for 10 min. 5. Students give 10 min break. 6. Students placed in groups and asked to discuss the concept learnt with their peers for 20 min. 7. The teacher gives students observation feedback for 15 min. 8. 15 minutes post-test given to students (5 multiple answer question). Rationale Critical thinking is an essential skill learnt by students studying to become nurses. It is defined as a process of intellectually and actively conceptualizing, using, analysing, synthesizing and assessing information to guide action or belief (Higgs, 2008). Critical thinking is based on intellectual competencies such as clarity, accuracy, breadth and precision and logic (White, Duncan Baumie, 2013). Nurses use critical thinking skills to apply model and theories learnt in their studies to patients (Cody Kenney, 2006). Nurses are required to make well-reasoned clinical decisions derived from reflection and critical thinking. To this end, they are taught critical thinking strategies equip them with skills needed to make decisions reasoning. Critical thinking enables the nurses to establish the needs of patients and make a decision on the most appropriate nursing action to take (Brunner Smeltzer, 2010). Some nursing schools offer critical thinking course as a separate unit requiremen t. Others integrate its concepts in other related course subjects. Irrespective of how nursing schools approach the teaching of critical thinking skills, it remains important in nursing practice. Critical thinking according to Watson and Glaser has three elements. These elements are skills, knowledge and attitude (Hersen Thomas, 2003). A critical thinker must be motivated to look at the problem and find solutions to it. He or she must also have good understanding and knowledge of the problem (Bradshaw Lowenstein, 2011). More importantly the person must have the appropriate skill to apply and knowledge to resolve problems (Andrea, 2009). Nurses are confronted by problems that often need quick and appropriate solutions. For instance, a nurse is expected to make a decision on whether to call a doctor or ignore when the patient conditions deteriorates. His or her decision can either save the patient’s life or lead to death. Hence, they require training on critical skills to equ ip them with abilities to make independent judgement and assessment patient’s conditions (Lyer, 2006). Nurses apply critical thinking skills in various aspects of their work. In assessment, nurses use critical skills to gather relevant data from patients through interview, observation or from records (Comer, 2005). They must also have critical thinking skills to differentiate important from non-important data and validate the data using other data sources. In diagnosis, they use the skills to organize data into patterns, establish a relationship between data and make a comparison between patterns and theories (Wilkinson, 1996). Again, the skills are used to explore individual assumptions on patients’ conditions and make a judgment on patients’ health concern and explain those concerns to the clients. In planning, critical thinking skills are used to identify patients concerns, find out desired health outcome and choose suitable intervention. On the other hand, i n the implementation, nurses use the skills execute interventions make comparison of baseline data and prevailing status. The teaching plan for the delivering the topic ‘Strategies for the Acquisition of Nursing Critical Thinking Skills’, Incorporates entrenched teaching practices and learning theories. The teaching plan is more students centred. Student-centred learning put emphasis on discovery of knowledge as opposed to passing information (Cook Sittler, 2008). Only 50 minutes out of 120 session minutes are dedicated for teachers’ active involvement in class. The remaining time is taken up by student-centred teaching methods that include peer teaching, demonstration, and reflection. These student centred methods of teaching support social learning theories that focus on peer learning as most suitable method of acquiring knowledge. Given that the program involves the development critical thinking skills, students can learn better by applying what they have lea rnt by interacting with peers. The demonstration part of the teaching gives the student opportunity to identify a problem and use learnt skills to solve it. They are expected to extract useful information from the patient and use it to understand the patients concerns. These tasks require critical thinking skills. The course content for teaching critical thinking skills is very elaborate. It encompasses key areas of learning that include the development of critical thinking skills and characteristics of a thinker. Besides, the learning outcomes have all been considered in the development of the teaching plan. Consequently, the plan meets the key requirement of teaching plans. Teaching plans have aims, procedure and resources (Mariotti, 2009). This information is captured in the template and it relates to the main topic. Apart from course content, there are sections of the plan that are to provide information on situational factors that may have effects on the learning critical think ing skills. These sections include learners’ entry level and special needs. Reflection in action Reflection is a philosophical understanding of how one can pick up learning through experience and use distinctive methodologies to the same situation (Nairn et al. 2012). It is also the persistent process of active thinking and putting into consideration the supporting evidence that forms knowledge to a given scenario. Critical reflection is facilitated by a person’s mind and emotions. According to Vachon and Leblanc (2011), reflective practitioners are characterised by open-mindedness, whole heartedness and responsibility. Reflection prior to action is essential for impacting learning and teaching because it allows for the teaching plan to cater for individual learners based on theoretical conceptualisations of their needs and interests. I was, therefore, prepared to meet the students, interested and motivated to learn how to apply critical thinking in the field of nursing correctly. I also anticipated that the use of a variety of teaching strategies such as PowerPoint prese ntation, discussion questions, a brief demonstration, group work and group discussions would cater for the different learning styles of the participants. For the teaching and learning process to conform to how critical thinking is practised, I therefore saw it very vital to modify strategies and approaches during the presentation to meet demands that were not catered for in the planning phase. In delivering the lecture, I was quite confident as I have worked as a clinical nurse in hospital for three years, giving students necessary skills for working in a lab area, hospital or other working environment. The allotted time for my lecture was 15 minutes, but my teaching plan was structured to cover a slightly longer time frame. I, therefore, had to make a decision to adjust some of the strategies and to approach some aspects of the lesson differently from what was outlined in the teaching plan. To ensure that students understood well this concept, I took the initiative of not following the teaching plan as initially outlined. The PowerPoint presentation was the first to be presented. However, there was no enough time for questions from the students, as well as discussion hence clarification of the unclear concept, was not successful. I went on to demonstrate the procedure of acquiring critical thinking while repeating the initial PowerPoint presentation. This demonstration helped to clarify any concerns the participants would have had from the initial presentation. This is because they had a chance to view the step-by-step procedure. My experience facilitated the quick movement through the procedure without neglecting relevant details and therefore the students were able to understand the process. I gave each student the opportunity to demonstrate the procedure. Each student constructed a checklist which he or she would use to perform the procedure. Thereafter, each student demonstrated the procedure while one of the other students explained to the students what was being done. The modifications I made to the teaching plan were important because they met the stated objectives within a given timeframe. The reflective process that I followed in order to make the adjustments was essential, and is terms as reflection in action (Ely Scott, 2007). Feedback played a key role in the process. From the comments made by the students in their fifteen-minute post-test, I believe that the process of reflection was successful. Although there were constraints such as non-adherence to the teaching plan and time shortage, the objectives of the teaching session were successfully met. The students reported that they got an understanding of how to perform the procedure, the steps to follow and the order in which those steps are followed. In addition to the students reporting that they are able to understand the procedure, I was able to estimate how well they understand the procedure based on the demonstration and narration that they exhibited. During each demonstration, I observed the student performing the procedure, and whenever a mistake was being made, I quickly pointed it out so that the correction could be made immediately. With these corrections, they were able to understand the procedure even better. The students themselves were able to reflect in action, revealing that in any learning situation all parties have to be actively involved in reflecting on and modifying practice (Rubenfeld Scheffer, 2010). In general, the teaching session was a decent experience for me. I discovered that in conveying teaching sessions, the instructor must consider the needs of the understudies and that their individual learning styles must put into consideration. Outcome criteria The outcome criteria are another important process in nursing. In this process, what nurses have been learning and practicing is put into practice. To accomplish the objective of this process, the students demonstrated knowledge of the performance procedures, risks and precautions related to acquisition of critical thinking in nursing by producing a ten-minute reflective paper, earnestly taking part in group discussions , airing their views, coming up with reflective questions and comments, teaming up in the making of an itemized informative agenda on the most proficient method to perform the process and doing a demonstration of the technique. Evaluation of teaching Amid this stage, I measured how well the students had understood the procedure. The key purpose of this stage was to gather information to assess the nursing consideration. The stage is simultaneous or on-going on the grounds that I assessed and settled on a choice amid the usage period by the students of the methodology. One of the key exercises that I carried out at this stage was to measure the attainment of the objective of goal and the modification of the teaching plan because I found out that it did not achieve the objectives (Bradshaw Lowenstein, 2011). To ensure that the evaluation process was successful, I issued the students with post-test sixth week of the teaching session. The post-test comprised a fifteen minute questionnaire where they had to tick in the boxes next to what was useful to them during the session. Moreover, by completing the questionnaire, I was able to see that the teaching session was successful because it met the criteria that all the notes that I had given them were relevant. Moreover, I ascertain that the procedure for acquiring critical thinking was well described and performed satisfactorily. Interviewing was also another criterion that I used to evaluate the teaching session. After interviewing the students, they said that they had gained a vast knowledge in the field of nursing especially in the application of critical thinking. They also said that through the demonstration and presentations in the class, they were able to gain a lot of knowledge that they would apply in their future career. I also picked two students who expressed a high level of performance as well as two who expressed a low level of performance and learning. I asked them to explain to me their views pertaining to the session, and they had different ideas. The high performing students said that the session went smoothly and that the objectives were successfully met. However, the other two students had some complaints. These complaints act as the basis for future recommendation in my teaching sessions. The students complained of inadequacy of time for discussion. This was quite a challenge because some students were not able to hear from each and every member of their group. This triggers me to allocate enough time in my next teaching session to avoid the issue of time constraint. The students also suggested that not all learning materials were available for the session hence recommended that in my next session that I ensure that they are in a capacity to access the internet. They also recommended that to ensure they are in a capacity to meet their learning objectives well they should be taken to a hospital setup where they can observe how the skill is applied. In summation, in my next lecture, I will evaluate of the entire learning session in the form of peer review. Here, I will ensure that the students make comments on each other’s procedure, commending good techniques and highlighting errors or oversights. I will also make appropriate general comments on the students’ performance of the procedure by making any further clarifications. Finally, I will require the students to complete a feedback evaluation of the lesson.

James Joyces Araby - Analysis of Araby :: Joyce Dubliners Araby Essays

James Joyce's Araby      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In James Joyce's short story "Araby," several different micro-cosms are evident. The story demonstrates adolescence, maturity, and public life in Dublin at that time. As the reader, you learn how this city has grown to destroy this young boy's life and hopes, and create the person that he is as a narrator.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In "Araby," the "mature narrator and not the naive boy is the story's protagonist."(Coulthard) Throughout the story this is easily shown, especially when it refers to "the hour when the Christian Brothers' school set the boys free."(Joyce 2112) Although they were freed, they were placed into an "equally grim world, where not even play brought pleasure."(Coulthard) Joyce demonstrates this culture by showing a boy's love for a girl throughout the story. This young boy, is completely mystified by this girl, but at the end, the girl is replaced by the girl with an "English accent" attending the booth at the bazaar. This shows the power and persuasiveness that England has at that time over Dublin.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The antagonist in this story, which can easily be determined is the culture and life in Dublin. This has a great effect on the boy and the rest of the people from this city. Dublin is referred to as the "center of paralyses,"(Internet) and "indeed sterile."(Joyce) This plays a huge role in the forming of this boy's life, where there is no fun. "Araby" is a story "of a soul-shriveling Irish asceticism, which renders hopes and dreams not only foolish, but sinful."(Coulthard) In the story, the only thing that the young boy has to look forward to is buying something for the girl he loves, and in the end he can't even do that; and by making the final characters English, the story leaves an impact on the reader about the Dublin society. It shows the antagonist of the story to be "a repressive Dublin culture."(Coulthard)      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Through this allegorical piece, the reader can understand the harsh life that people are forced to deal with in Dublin society. "The narrator has become embittered rather than wiser, which was his destiny from the first for desiring

Police surveillance Essay

Police surveillance can be a good thing but it can also be a bad thing. There are morale and ethical implications concerned with police surveillance. This literature review will thoroughly examine police surveillance. The level of police surveillance and information gathering that exists continues to be discussed by scholars. There are many perspectives when discussing police surveillance in nation states, each discussing an individual aspect of surveillance, and its significance. In Frank Webster’s book Theories of the Information Society he discusses the growth of police surveillance and organization in modern times. Within his discussion, Webster makes reference to works of Anthony Giddens. Webster uses Gidden’s explanation of the nation state, to begin his discussion of surveillance. He contends that â€Å"from the outset in the nation state, conceived as a bounded area over which is exercised political power, information has an especial significance.† He argues that from their establishment, nation states are ‘information societies,’ and a requirement of a nation state is that the members of it, be known at least in a minimal sense. He further explains this requirement by stating, that a nation state must hold both ‘allocative resources’ and ‘authoritative resources.’ He believes that in order for these resources to be achieved, effective surveillance is a prerequisite. Giddens argues that the nation state had a particular interest in and reliance upon information gathering and storage. The gathering and storage of information is part of a â€Å"contract between the nation state and its members †¦ are a battery of citizenship rights and duties.† The first duty of any government is to protect its frontiers, due to this there is an insatiable hunger for information. This hunger is amplified by possible threats to a nation’s border, whether real or perceived. This growing need for information has caused for the creation of a massive â€Å"system of interlined technologies to routinely and continuously monitor and inspect events and activities – military and civilian – around the globe.† The contact between nation state and citizen, allows for each citizen to have many rights and duties. Rights that are commonly held include a right to education, to vote, to hold a passport, to a minimum level of income, to health treatment and so on. They also have duties, as citizens, to pay taxes which are levied, and in some cases fight and die for their country. The delivery of rights and benefits by the nation state, such as the delivery of welfare benefits and services is at the heart of the system of mass surveillance; because it is [there] that the processes of classification, information gathering and recording are constantly multiplying. Gidden’s believes that the ‘informatisation’ of society is in part due to the existence of police surveillance in the modern nation state. He contends that due to this surveillance, that rather than regarding a modern nation state as an ‘information society,’ it would be better to regard it as a ‘surveillance society.’ His arguments presented provide a solid understanding of how a nation state is formed, and the role of surveillance in a ‘surveillance society.’ Giddens also provides insight into how information gathering occurs, and how that gathering of information has an effect on daily life. Gidden’s discussion of a ‘social contract’ while not new, is a way to better understand how the government can justify the use of police surveillance as it is currently used. The argument that at the rate of which surveillance is expanding and advancing, that a nation could succumb to totalitarian rule, while creative, this seems to be more of a thought provoking statement, rather than actual probability. In Kevin Robins and Frank Webster’s Times of the Technoculture: From the Information Society to the Virtual Life, the authors describe what they term as ‘the Republic of Technology.’ In this republic, society is fixated by the idea of progress, growth and development without end. They make reference to Cornelius Castoriadis, who explains that society seeks a fantasy of control. This fantasy is of â€Å"total control, of our will or desire for mastering all objects and all circumstance.† It is argued that the culture of technology is in part the reason for the expansion of police surveillance. According to Christopher Lasch, â€Å"the delusion that we can make ourselves lords of the universe †¦ is the heart and soul of modern technology.† Robins and Webster argue that the clearest expression of compulsion to command and control is found by the police. The police in their view is central to the growth of surveillance and to the growing need for information. Robins and Webster believe as Anthony Giddens, that â€Å"upon generalized patterns of change has been so profound that it is little short of absurd to seek to interpret such patterns with out systematic reference to it †¦ That police developments are central, rather than marginal to the technological project.† Robins and Webster believe that the police plays a central role for the maintenance of current surveillance and for its future expansion. Robins and Webster argue that the police, as the central force for the expansion of surveillance, plays a large role in diverting necessary funds away from its citizens and has an overriding influence on the direction research and development that could be better used for other initiatives. They argue that the lobbies impose a large degree of influence which distorts and perverts economic and social priorities through procedures which are largely closed to public scrutiny. The role of the police and the use of surveillance can be seen as a means of social control. Social control, according to Robins and Webster, is accomplished by way of surveillance and control strategies, which are modeled on the police paradigm. They believe that even policing, is moving towards a more military style of operation. Robins and Webster argue that police imperatives have played a major role in the growth of the state and the systems of surveillance. Robins and Webster agree with Anthony Giddens’ contention that â€Å"surveillance as the mobilizing of administrative power – through the storage and control of information – is the primary means of concentration of authoritative resources.† In other words, the use of police surveillance and the gathering of information are central to the maintaining control and order. The authors emphasize that within the country, the police is central to the collection of information on both possible enemies and its own citizens. Furthermore, police technologies are well funded and continue to be used to experience the ‘dream of total control.’ They argue this dream has existed in the development of technologies, and that in the future seeking this dream will result in a â€Å"system that deliberately eliminates the whole human personality, ignores the historic process, overplays the role of the abstract intelligence, and makes control over physical nature, ultimately control over man himself, the chief purpose of existence.† Robins and Webster provide a different perspective of the root of police surveillance and information gathering, and how this is largely due to the ‘fantasy of total control.’ The ability to control all that is available is a fantasy that has lead to the remarkable growth of police technologies that are used in part on a nation’s own citizens. This growth of surveillance and police technologies leaves the authors to believe that humans will lose control over themselves, with the advancements of technology. This argument is frightening but such a statement is warranted with the advancement of technologies. In The Pay-Per Society: Computers and Communication in the Information Age: Essays in Critical Theory and Public Policy, Vincent Mosco discusses the role of the police in the development of computer and communications systems. He believes that this is necessary, because the â€Å"police over the years, has exerted the most substantial influence on the development of computer and communications.† Mosco argues (similar to Robins and Webster) that the police has increasingly shaped the development of technology in the United States, particularly the development of communication and information technologies. Mosco discusses the relationship between the police, the United States government and industry. He explains how the police has been a driving force in the creation of new technologies, using funds received from the United States government, along with relationships with leading technology corporations. Mosco states that the relationship between the Pentagon and the US computer industry has always been strong. During the 1940s and 1950s the US government, led by the Pentagon, provided most of the funding for computer research. Moreover, the relationship has continued to remain strong. This arrangement has allowed for the National Security Agency to have in their control a global computer/communications satellite system that routinely monitors international telex, telegraph, telephone, radio and other transmissions, emanating from or direct to the United States. The military has not limited its surveillance only over its own territories, but also foreign nations and space. Fijnaut (1995) discusses the expansion of police technologies, and the expansion of surveillance into space. He explains that police computers are integrated into systems of Command, Control, Communication and Intelligence. Moreover, that police computers have expanded the range, speed and accuracy of weapons systems. That intelligence gathering, surveillance and reconnaissance have been expanded by way of communication technologies. The police’s wish to have the most control and protection from disorder. Fijnaut (1995) argues that the limits on police technologies has yet to be reached, and will continue to expand. This expansion of information gathering and surveillance is in part, for the protection of a nation, against disorderly conduct. The protection of a nation’s citizens and the protection of their rights is of the utmost importance for any government, and due to this, the creation of new technologies is deemed necessary. In Surveillance Society: Monitoring Everyday Life, David Lyon discusses the need for information gathering and surveillance in modern nation states. He argues that modern government administrations depend on the collection and recording of personal data. Moreover, that modernity means reliance on information and knowledge in generating and maintaining power. Due to that the fact that much of that information is personal, he argues that â€Å"such focused attention to data on individuals spells surveillance.† He contends that the magnification of surveillance capacities is a fact of modernity, and that it is part of the world that has been created in an attempt to bring social, economic and political arrangements into rational regimes of organization and control. He argues that, the focused attention (surveillance) on individual lives is characteristic of modernity, and that it provides eligibility to benefits of citizenship, such as the right to vote, or state welfare, and also may ensure that workers are appropriately remunerated, or rewarded with promotions and recognition of retirement at the appropriate time. Lyon provides both the positive and negative aspects of police surveillance, and argues that while surveillance practices may be altering, or that they may be used in negative ways, does not alter the case that police surveillance is simply a fact of modern social life. Lyon provides examples of police surveillance and information gathering in social activities. One such example is in the Toronto area, the world’s first fully automated toll road. Highway 407 provides an alternative route through the busiest corridor in Canada, with tolls collected either via transponders in vehicles or by video cameras scanning registration plates. This technology was developed from what was used for smart bombers during the 1991 Gulf War. This technology identifies the ‘target’ vehicles for tolls based on the distance driven and the time of the day. This to many, is considered a luxury, and the automatic billing rather than toll booths provides convenience. While this is true, what is not realized by the driver is that this technology permits the creation of real-time simulations of road traffic time-space movement across cities. This is extremely valuable to planners, especially in densely traveled urban corridors. This example shows how military technologies are used in public sector. Lyon also discusses the impossibility for anyone to be shielded from the existent surveillance. Lyon argues that â€Å"surveillance operates in so many daily life spheres today that it is impossible to evade, should one wish to. We are indeed wrapped in media. Most of our social encounters and almost all our economic transactions are subject to electronic recording, checking and authorization.† In all aspects of our lives, we are unable to escape. Lyon also argues that there is not one single agency that is responsible for the focused attention on our daily lives. Lyon provides insight into both those for and against the current level of surveillance, he begins by saying, that those who are opposed to such surveillance do so, â€Å"because they feel that there is something wrong when big government and large corporations seem to extract, process, exchange and even trade personal data with apparent impunity.† Lyon’s argument can be seen as being that police surveillance is a focused attention to personal life details with a view to managing or influencing those who lives are monitored. He believes this to be the power of classification, of social sorting. In his book, Lyon offers an approach, a mode of engaging with the issues related to police surveillance and information gathering. He does so, by discussing how police surveillance and information gathering technologies are implemented in daily lives, and discusses the complaints made by those who are fearful of such focus being made on their lives. In What’s New About the â€Å"New Surveillance†? Classifying for Change and Continuity, Gary T. Marx discusses how much surveillance is applied categorically and beyond persons to places, spaces, networks and categories of person. And that the distinction between self and other surveillance can be blurred. He attempts to highlight the differences between the new and traditional surveillance and offer a way to capture information relevant to contemporary social, ethical and policy considerations. In this publication, Marx is attempting to determine whether or not the protection of personal information is decreasing or increasing. Marx argues that in the last half of the 20th century, that there has been a significant increase in the use of technology for the discovery of personal information. He provides examples such as, video and audio surveillance, biometric access devices, drug testing, DNA analysis, computer monitoring including email and web usage and the use of the computer techniques such as expert systems, matching and profiling, data mining, mapping, network analysis and simulation. He believes that control technologies have become what had only previously existed in the imaginations of science fiction writers. Marx argues that a new definition of surveillance is necessary to fully understand its implications. He finds previous definitions inadequate, and provides his own definition. He suggests that a better definition of the new surveillance â€Å"is the use of technical means to extract or create personal data. This may be taken from individuals or contexts. In this definition the use of â€Å"technical means† to extract and create the information implies the ability to go beyond what is offered to the unaided senses or voluntarily reported.† This definition he believes to be better suited for what is considered new surveillance technologies. Marx argues that surveillance technologies can provide many positive aspects to society, and outlines how openness would be beneficial. He argues that through offering â€Å"high quality documentary evidence and audit trails, the new surveillance may enhance due process, fairness and legitimacy. That it may contribute to the political pluralism central to democracy by making the tools of surveillance widely available so that citizens and competing groups can use them against each other, as well government, to enhance accountability.† He argues that in the United States, unlike in many societies, surveillance technology is widely available to the public, and due to this, surveillance may no longer be considered a one-way mirror, but instead a window. In Privacy is Not the Antidote to Surveillance, Felix Stalder discusses the existence of police surveillance and information gathering in democracies. His contention is that in democracies, extensive institutional mechanisms are in place to create and maintain accountability. Moreover, that there are mechanisms to punish those who abuse their power. Stalder believes that similar mechanisms must be developed for the handling of personal information. He believes that due to the current status of surveillance, that the public (US) have become nervous. Prior to the attacks on September 11th 2001, polls showed that the vast majority of respondents were â€Å"concerned† or â€Å"very concerned† about the misuse of personal data. As discussed by Webster and Robins, Lyon and others, access to large data-sets of personal information is a prerequisite for social control. Those who hold such data have a crucial tool, which allows them to influence the behaviour of those whose data is being held. This exists not only commercially, but also more importantly by governments who collect data about their citizens in order to increase accuracy of their planning, as well as combat fraud and tax evasion. With growing concerns, the usual response to these problems is the call for further protection of privacy. While the call for more protection might be the clear answer, doing so is not as easy as one might think. The definition of what privacy is, throughout the world varies. Europeans have developed one of the most stringent approaches where privacy is understood as ‘informational self-determinism.’ Stalder explains as being, â€Å"that an individual should be able to determine the extent to which data about her or him is being collected in any given context.† In this context, privacy is personal, and being personal, every single person will have a different notion about what privacy means. Data one person might allow to be collected bight be deeply personal for someone else. The likelihood of having a collectively accepted definition is slim. Stalder provides his own solution for this ever-growing problem. Each article provides insight into different areas concerning information gathering and police surveillance. In conjunction with one another, it is possible to understand how surveillance technologies have been created, and how these technologies continue to be funded by governmental agencies. The effect that this massive funding has on local economies would require even further research, but at the essence of this dilemma, is what can be done to better protect civilians from the collection and sharing of information gathered. Civilians feel helpless to protect themselves from their privacy being invaded. Moreover, these articles explain how the protection of civil, political, economic and human rights are secured are secured through the systematic surveillance and data-collection. Without this, governments would not be capable of such a task, and these rights would surely be infringed upon. They are confronted with a growing police presence in their daily lives, some not even knowing that it exists. They use their credit card, and do not realize that each purchase is tracked, recorded, entered into a database, so that companies can use the data received, for profitable gains. They do not know that their information is bought and sold, traded on the open market, along with all other commodities. In order for governments to provide services to their citizens, they require the collection of data. This data is used for purposes that are deemed legitimate, such as taxes and social security. What worries many is what else that information is being used for, and who is being given access to it. While accountability, by governments in this area has increased, the same can not be said for information gathered by commercial entities. The growth of information gathering and police surveillance in Canada and the United States especially, can be attributed to many factors. One such factor is the need for a nation state to protect itself from invasion, the protection of its borders and citizens is of the utmost importance. This being said, governments attempt to have complete control of their territory, this requires the use of police surveillance, for surrounding nations, and for those within their borders. Another fact that needs to be addressed is the undeniable connection between governments and their police, by which technologies are funded and created. This relationship has allowed for the astonishing growth of police technologies, which in many respects drains from social services and depletes national revenues, when more civilian based initiatives could be implemented. Due to the sophistication of information gathering, civilians are no longer capable of securing their own information. Their information is passed from corporation to corporation, without any sense of protection at their disposal. There is a lack of accountability, when dealing with corporations, and how a person’s personal information is acquired and kept. Moreover, in order for any change to occur, definitions must be more precise, rather than attempting to apply vague terms for new solutions. Works Consulted Lyon, David. Surveillance Society: Monitoring Everyday Life Open University Press: Philadelphia, 2001. Marx, Gary T. What’s New About the â€Å"New Surveillance†? Classifying for Change and Continuity in Surveillance and Society 1(1) University of New Castle: United Kingdom, Mosco, Vincent. The Pay-Per Society: Computers and Communication in the Information Age: Essays in Critical Theory and Public Policy in SOSC 2312 9.0A Course Kit 2004-2005 York University: Toronto, 2004. Robins, Kevin & Frank Webster, Times of the Technoculture: From the Information Society to the Virtual Life in SOSC 2312 9.0A Course Kit 2004-2005 York University: Toronto, Stalder, Felix. Privacy is Not the Antidote to Surveillance in Surveillance and Society 1(1) University of New Castle: United Kingdom, 2002. Webster, Frank. Theories of The Information Society, Routledge: London, 2000. Undercover: Police Surveillance in America (20th Century Fund) by Gary T. Marx – Dec 5, 1989 Se crets Of Surveillance: A Professionals Guide To Tailing Subjects By Vehicle, Foot, Airplane, And Public Transportation by ACM IV Security Services – Sep 1993 Women Police: Gender, Welfare and Surveillance in the Twentieth Century by Louise Jackson – Sep 17, 2006 The Surveillance Studies Reader by Sean Hier and Joshua Greenberg – Aug 1, 2007 Police Officer Exam by Donald J. Schroeder and Frank A. Lombardo – Jan 1, 2005 Policing, Surveillance and Social Control: Cctv and Police Monitoring of Suspects by Tim Newburn and Stephanie Hayman – Jun 2001 State Secrets Police Surveillance in America by Paul; Egleson, Nick; Hentoff; Nat Cowan – 1974 Undercover-Police Surveillance in Comparative Perspective by Cyrille Fijnaut – Oct 12, 1995 State secrets; police surveillance in America by Paul Cowan – 1974 Undercover: Police Surveillance in America by Gary Marx – 1990